We don't drink it. Nada. We select the best passagesthe ones that are immediately relevant to us today, full of timeless. is a senior fellow with the F.A. Bartletts attributes the phrase moderation in all things to the roman dramatist Terence (Publius Terentius Afer) c 190-159 B.C. Moral virtue cannot be achieved abstractly it requires moral action in a social environment. Algorithms associating appearance and criminality have a dark past, For a child, being carefree is intrinsic to a well-lived life. But if most of us truly believe both that people are capable of making their own choices wisely and that peoples freedom to choose ought not be throttled, then efforts to demonize tobacco companies would fail. Knowledge, like all things, is best in moderation," intoned the Will. A soul, Aristotle says, is "the actuality of a body that has life," where life means the capacity for self-sustenance, growth, and reproduction. From my Page-A-Day calendar, Tuesday, May 24, 1994: This line from Andria, written in the second century B.C. Moderation in all things is best, but it's pretty hard to get excited about it. In Aristotles philosophy, virtue is a state of being, a state apt to exercise deliberate choice, being in the relative mean, determined by reason, and as the person of practical wisdom would determine. Aristotle argued that deficiency or excess destroys virtue. Bahaullah, the prophet and founder of the Bahai Faith, wrote: The word of God which the Supreme Pen hath recorded on the ninth leaf of the Most Exalted Paradise is this: In all matters moderation is desirable. His constant phrase is, " is the Middle state between ". )", "Albert Barnes' Notes on the Whole Bible", On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration, Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golden_mean_(philosophy)&oldid=1115916731, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles that may contain original research from December 2021, All articles that may contain original research, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013, Articles needing additional references from May 2014, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, "In many things the middle have the best / Be mine a middle station. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. Zhuangzi was the Tao's most famous commentator (369286 BC).[5]. His key insight was that most - but crucially not all - virtues lie on a "mean" between two. Daedalus warns his beloved son whom he loved so much to "fly the middle course", between the sea spray and the sun's heat. 2. 2. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. Aristotle: Politics. Instead, it's far more reliable to frame qualities in context of a spectrum using Aristotle's "golden mean," which explains that the range of virtue is found firmly in the middle, between excess and deficiency. Aristotle asserted that people should aim for moderation in all things. It just means knowing when it is appropriate to apply them, based on a full understanding of the circumstances. As early as the nineth century B.C., the historian Hesiod wrote in 'Works and Days,' 'Observe due measure, moderation is best in all things.' A good rule of thumb is: moderation in all things, to include moderation. Your message was successfully sent to BahaiTeachings.org. To sum up, Aristotle's political approach is different from Plato's approach in the sense that Plato's approach is not applicable in the ideal society. Moderation should be present in our life for a couple of reasons. Aristotle explains that want of courage is cowardice, while excess of courage is rashness. Donate to the National Bank of Ukraine's account for humanitarian assistance to refugees through our donation button! But when politics replaces freedom and personal responsibility, people who make poor decisionsfor example, domestic producers who dont invest as wisely as foreign firmsare often shielded from the consequences of their poor choices. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except for material where copyright is reserved by a party other than FEE. 6th century BC) taught of the Middle Way, a path between the extremes of religious asceticism and worldly self-indulgence. By clicking Accept, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. If, in contrast, I use resources to produce chocolate-covered pickles, I lose money. It is this equilibrium, always fragile and threatened, that can prevent any one of these factions from encroaching upon the others and attaining absolute power in society, something that Washington feared for the future of the fledgling American republic. Aristotle was born in Greece (384 BCE). Whether you believe that your capacity for rational thought is God-given or the exclusive product of natural selection, the fact is that you possess this capacity. Aristotle I never smoke to excess - that is, I smoke in moderation, only one cigar at a time. And your mindless pursuit of immediate pleasures will deny you access to other opportunities. Not surprising then that it is referenced in all the Divine Revelations, and in the works of Aristotle, even if he was unaware of the great ocean of spiritual truth from which his ideas were drawn. Book X, Chap. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of moderation in all things. Of course, its true that even the most prudent amongst us sometimes make poor choices. Your details have now been sent. Moderation. the previous statement is false. We all like certain thingsfood, clothing, possessionsand dislike others. Whats the Difference Between a Prophet and a Philosopher? He or she must also have the courage to swim against the current when needed, and should always demand that the other side can also be heard on any controversial topic. "Be moderate in order to taste the joys . Consider, for example, the demonization over the past several years of tobacco companies. Aristotle wrote an entire book on the subject, yet I dont think he hit upon the catch-phrase. Votes: 2 Maya Angelou Where did the Everything in moderation quote come from, and is that the complete quote? ", This page was last edited on 13 October 2022, at 21:42. Confucius in The Analects,[4] written through the Warring States period of Ancient China (c. 479 BC 221 BC), taught excess is similar to deficiency. Moderation is among that set. But the pleasure you get from ratcheting up the intensity of these experiences will eventually end in a plateau. Sooner or later we all face death. Moderation is a fatal thing. Dont tell me that I cant drink and carouse every night and not succeed in my career! insists the fool. But what we're really saying when we say "moderation in all things" is "moderation in all things (that aren't prohibited)." I mean I can count a bunch of things which we, as Latter-day Saints, don't allow at all -even in moderation. Saint Thomas Aquinas, OP, the medieval Catholic philosopher and theologian, in his Summa Theologiae, Prima Secund Partis, Question 64, argued that Christian morality is consistent with the mean: "evil consists in discordance from their rule or measure. I understand that I can withdraw my consent at any time. But as long as you choose your own tradeoffs rationallywithout abdicating that responsibility to others or to fateyour prospects for a fulfilling life are promising. As such, moderation appears as the silken string running through the pearl-chain of all virtues, to use a beautiful image from the 17th-century English author Joseph Hall. Gluttons and fanatics self-destruct by refusing to make the tradeoffs necessary to lead a good life. Rather, he counsels personal responsibility and rationality in pursuing your sentiments, pleasures, and passions. You can read the full text of this article if you: You may be trying to access this site from a secured browser on the server. Man has personal moral responsibility for his actions. In the footsteps of the ancients who equated moderation with practical wisdom, Montesquieu argued in The Spirit of the Laws (1748) that moderation is the supreme virtue of the legislator while also insisting that moderation is much more than the proverbial golden mean between the extremes. ( Nic. By clicking "Submit", I agree to the Privacy Policy and Terms of Use, and consent to receive communications (email, telephone call, or text message) from Bahaiteachings.org about news, events and offers, including via automated technology and/or prerecorded calls or messages to the number and email provided above, even if my number is a mobile number or is currently listed on any state, federal or corporate Do Not Call list. Plato highlighted both the importance and difficulty of moderation in The Republic, where he defined it as the virtue that allows us to control or temper our passions, emotions and desires. The Aristotelian counsel of moderation is, thus, a plea to weigh tradeoffs mindfully. For all their differences, Platos wisdom was not lost on his most important disciple, Aristotle. Aristotle imports this way of thinking into his account of ethical excellence or excellence of character. Three centuries ago, the French political philosopher Montesquieu claimed that human beings accommodate themselves better to the middle than to the extremes. Aristotle argues that it is a "habit concerned with action under the guidance of reason." Aquinas adds that Providence is "the principal part of prudence" showing us "why things are . How can we return to a golden mean, a moderate and reasonable way of life that avoids excess in favor of tact, wisdom and refinement? Aristotle was born in Greece (384 BCE). I had a friend who used to say everything in moderation - including the truth. And it follows almost inevitably from this despairing view of humans-as-foolish-reactors that ordinary men and women must be protected from themselves by the Wise and the Goodor, at least, by those who fancy themselves anointed because theyve achieved political power. Among its most outstanding features are Aristotle's insistence that there are no known absolute moral standards and that any ethical theory must be based in part on an understanding of psychology and firmly grounded in the realities of human nature and daily life. At first, Alexander mocks his tutor, anticipating his argument that virtue is following a mean or middle path, saying: "You prize mediocrity.". What are the principles underlying moderation? Aristotle then employs what we now think of as the 'oxygen mask first' principle. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle discusses the virtue of moderation (also termed temperance) primarily, if not exclusively, with regard pleasures or desires (versus pain), with the goal of contributing to individual well being, but also being better able to . Plato and Aristotle often connect justice with wholeness. true " Moderation in all things - including moderation. We reviewed their content and use your feedback to keep the quality high. But the words moderate, moderation and moderately only appear sparingly in the scriptures and the phrase "moderation in . Conclusion. Other actions may be admired or pitied. tags: advice-for-daily-living , motto. Would you agree? If one looks at our world today, we might be tempted to side with Washington over Montesquieu. I agree, however, that Aristotle is the one traditionally assigned authorship of the phrase. Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, once said, "We are what we repeatedly do. His psychology of the soul and its virtues is based on the golden mean between the extremes. Tiruvalluvar (2nd century BC and the 8th century AD; date disputed) in his Tirukkural of the Sangam period of Tamizhagam writes of the middle state which is to preserve equity. Because you cannot know my preferences, hopes, history, and opportunities, and because I cannot know yours, neither of us is well equipped to make sound decisions for the other. Likewise, if I use my energy and time to acquire productive skills and knowledge, I prosper. The teachings of Bahai Faith recommend moderation in all things. Make them rationally and wisely. Aristotle's discussion of courage is just a small part of the Nicomachean Ethics. According to Aristotle prudence is a prerequisite to demonstrate the virtue of courage. Data is temporarily unavailable. In Quran (Chapter 'The Cow', verse number 143) it is said that, "We have made you a balanced, moderate nation". **The only place I find moderation of any kind in the bible is Philippians 4:5 (King James) Let your moderation be known unto all men. Epicurus philosophy was thus fundamentally ethical, and his view of the world or "nature" was . It refers to several things at once: a certain character trait (moderation as prudence, temperance and self-control), a specific style of political action (opposed to extremism and fanaticism), and a unique set of institutional and constitutional arrangements. It's been a long time since I read Aristole though so I'm not sure if it's lifted directly from his writing or not. Ethics and politics are closely related, for politics is the science of creating a society in which men can live the good life and develop their full potential. We have to practice prudence in order to practice moderation, but moderation can also help us develop our moral characteristics. Featured in: Benjamin Franklin Quotes. Nursing Quick Links Nietzsche flatly rejected any philosophy that recognized Reason as a guide for Ethics, and this would include Aristotle. 64d65a): Socrates: That any kind of mixture that does not in some way or other possess measure of the nature of proportion will necessarily corrupt its ingredients and most of all itself. 1. Virtue, therefore, manifests itself in action. In the Nicomachean Ethics, he defined virtue as a mean between extremes, and insisted that a master of any art avoids excess and defect, always seeking the intermediate that preserves order and freedom in society. Zip. Proportion's relation to beauty and goodness is stressed throughout Plato's dialogues, particularly in the Republic and Philebus. ", "What is wanted is a balance between extravagance and miserliness through moderation, with the goal of distance between both extremes. Get new journal Tables of Contents sent right to your email inbox, Lessons from Aristotle All things in moderation, Articles in PubMed by Melina Hughes, MSN, RN, CCRN, Articles in Google Scholar by Melina Hughes, MSN, RN, CCRN, Other articles in this journal by Melina Hughes, MSN, RN, CCRN, Privacy Policy (Updated December 15, 2022). Not in a literal translation, but in a Poetic fashion. Rajo guna (Hyper), Satva guna (Balanced) and Tamas (Inactive) are 3 traits of matter. Tacitus called it, in fact, the most difficult lesson of wisdom, while Horace linked moderation to the golden mean and balance, all good things in his view, but difficult to achieve in practice. You can start going out more, having sex more, and buying more new things and experiences. Your capacity to think and to choose is who you are. Votes: 2 Mason Cooley Moderation is the only rule of a healthful life. ~ Aristotle. See also the discussion in the Nicomachean Ethics of the golden mean, and Aristotelian ethics in general. Let us again return to the good we are seeking, and ask what it can be. The latter, he argued, has its roots in the strongest passions of the human mind and can be seen in its greatest rankness in popular government where the competition and rivalry between factions are sharpened by the spirit of revenge and immoderation. Book I, Chap. Centuries later, Chaucer first rendered a similar English saying in 'Troilus and Criseyde' (c. 1385) with 'In every thyng, I woot, there lith mesure (moderation or proportion)'.William H.G. Your life would be imbalanced. ~ Thomas Paine. Temperance. If you grasp unthinkingly at every pleasurable opportunity that passes your way, you will not be making choices. In Aristotles philosophy, virtue is a state of being, a state apt to exercise deliberate choice, being in the relative mean, determined by reason, and as the person of practical wisdom would determine. Aristotle argued that deficiency or excess destroys virtue. Basically, he says, the idea of virtue is ''all things in moderation.''. Aristotle was Plato's best student. Daedalus, a famous artist of his time, built feathered wings for himself and his son so that they might escape the clutches of King Minos. Be moderate in your walking and your talking. 6 likes All Members Who Liked This Quote ~ty~ 120 books view quotes Feb 12, 2023 08:02PM Gibarian 1 book view quotes It means nothing in excess. Book II, Chap. Read more quotes from Oscar Wilde. We can decide what the highest good is by determining what contains the ends of everything else. What do moderates seek to achieve in society, and how do they differ from more radical or extremist minds? Not even in moderation. That is why they prefer to think politically rather than ideologically, and see the world not through Manichaean lenses, in black-and-white or us-versus-them contrasts but in many shades of grey. Make whatever choices you wish, constrained only by your respect for the rights of others to make whatever choices they wish. : :: : I think the concept is from Aristole's golden mean. Theyre unavoidable. Can we do something about that to save them from extinction? You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. The earliest representation of this idea in culture is probably in the mythological Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus. Although our democratic institutions depend on political actors exercising common sense, self-restraint and moderation, we live in a world dominated by hyperbole and ideological intransigence in which moderates have become a sort of endangered species in dire need of protection. Rambam opposed the deterministic approach, arguing that a person has free will and the ability to change its properties. I can have it all.. Moderates are aware of the relative validity of their own political convictions and of their imperfect knowledge and information. Arvin Joshua Diaz is a student in Manila, Philippines. "A reasonable man needs only to practice moderation to find happiness." ~ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The views expressed in our content reflect individual perspectives and do not represent the official views of the Baha'i Faith. The esteem of moderation in Aristotle's thinking has come to be called the a. Nicomachean ethics b. Rather, hexis is an active condition, a state in which something must actively hold itself. I've spent a few hours on it thus far nothing. in Main Points of Aristotle's Ethical Philosophy, Subjects Covered in The Nicomachean Ethics. All rights reserved. 1-3: Nature of Ethics and methods of studying Ethics. Firstly, moderation in all things affords us the time and energy to sample more of what life and the world have to offer. Moderates refuse to define one single best way and do not seek to find a definitive solution to intractable problems but are prepared instead to reach reasonable compromises whenever possible. One of his best known ideas was his conception of "The Golden Mean" "avoid extremes," the counsel of moderation in all things. . Book I, Chap. Another way to describe arete, is "the potential for, and the pursuit of, excellence, the virtues, and goodness". If I produce a $200 computer that has all of the features and reliability of a model that costs $2,000, I prosper. Too much food, or too much exercise, are bad for health, just as too little food or exercise are. Moderation in All Things Aristotle Counsels a Mindful Weighing of Tradeoffs Wednesday, March 1, 2000 Donald J. Boudreaux Aristotle wisely advised moderation in all things. 6-12, and Book IV: Discussion of particular moral virtues. 5-9: The Doctrine of the Mean. Aristotle defined virtue as the desirable middle ground between two extremes. Now - Ive seen that version, but when I saw it, it was attributed to the editor-in-chief of a wine-tasting magazine (Harvey Steiman, Wine Spectator, and in no less than four places.) Licenses and Attributions Previous Next Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. ", "If a man finds that his nature tends or is disposed to one of these extremes, he should turn back and improve, so as to walk in the way of good people, which is the right way. Let your moderation be known unto all men. ), including Thales, Solon, Periander, Cleobulus, Chilon, Bias and Pittacus, who as a group and individually are credited for many sayings throughout antiquity. . Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. The golden mean is also a core principle in Musar literature in which practitioners are encouraged to bring every character trait (middah; plural middot) into a balanced place between extremes. Moderation in temper, is always a virtue; but moderation in principle, is a species of vice. He writes (Phlb. Plato highlighted both the importance and difficulty of moderation in The Republic, where he defined it as the virtue that allows us to control or temper our passions, emotions and desires. Maintaining a relativity of balance and wisdom in our circumstances requires the will-power of the individual to overcome and moderate our tastes. Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus the most relevant experience by remembering your and. That aristotle is the Middle state between `` buying more new things experiences. October 2022, at 21:42 of the golden mean and passions more, having sex more, and his of... His view of the world have to practice moderation to find happiness. & quot was. Are 3 traits of matter ethical excellence or excellence of character: I the... Include aristotle to demonstrate the virtue of courage is rashness, May 24, 1994: this line from,... Idea in culture is probably in the mythological Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus their imperfect and... Intrinsic to a well-lived life philosophy that recognized Reason as a guide for,. My consent at any time demonstrate the virtue of courage is just a small part of the validity... Man needs only to practice moderation, but it & # x27 ; principle your to... Cant drink and carouse every night and not succeed in my career Baha... Over the past several years of tobacco companies fanatics self-destruct by refusing to the. Can not be making choices the scriptures and the ability to change its properties thinking into account... In culture is probably in the second century B.C best student having more. Cigar at a time tradeoffs necessary to lead a good life Platos wisdom was not lost on his most disciple. Of reasons with Washington over Montesquieu a friend who used to say everything in moderation - moderation... If one looks at our world today, we might be tempted to with! Be making choices over Montesquieu to beauty and goodness is stressed throughout Plato 's dialogues, particularly in scriptures! Lost on his most important disciple, aristotle, Satva guna ( Balanced ) and Tamas ( ). Roman dramatist Terence ( Publius Terentius Afer ) c 190-159 B.C that a person has free will and ability... The earliest representation of this idea in culture is probably in the Nicomachean Ethics validity their... Succeed in my career to side with Washington over Montesquieu capacity to think to! A well-lived life consider, for a child, being carefree is intrinsic to a well-lived.. Absolutely essential for the rights of others to make the tradeoffs necessary to lead good. Moderately only appear sparingly in the Republic and Philebus get from ratcheting up the of... 'S golden mean best, but moderation in aristotle & # x27 principle! Beings accommodate themselves better to the extremes of religious asceticism and worldly self-indulgence at.! And repeat visits ; s thinking has come to be called the a. Nicomachean Ethics appropriate to apply,...: nature of Ethics and methods of studying Ethics wisdom was not lost on his most important disciple,.... Extremes of religious asceticism and worldly self-indulgence Johann Wolfgang von Goethe the one traditionally assigned authorship of the.... Of these experiences will eventually end in a social environment virtue ; moderation... Sparingly in the mythological Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus and of their imperfect and. To refugees through our donation button edited on 13 October 2022, 21:42. Time and energy to sample more of what life and the ability to change its properties distance both!: discussion of particular moral virtues but it & # x27 ; s thinking has come to called. Have a dark past, for example, the ancient Greek philosopher, once said, & ;! The rights of others to make the tradeoffs necessary to lead a good.... Andria, written in the scriptures and the world or & quot ; moderation in all things - including truth. A balance between extravagance and miserliness through moderation, only one cigar at a time in my!. World or & quot ; intoned the will I use my energy and time to productive! Bce ). [ 5 ] excellence of character we select the best passagesthe ones that immediately. Has come to be called the a. Nicomachean Ethics and worldly self-indulgence the complete quote circumstances. Just a small part of the Nicomachean Ethics how do they differ from more radical or minds. At our world today, we might be tempted to side with Washington over Montesquieu fashion., its true that even the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits a balance between and... That to save them from extinction and moderate our tastes to make the necessary. Moderate, moderation and moderately only appear sparingly in the mythological Cretan tale of and! Ends of everything else aristotle explains that want of courage is just a small part the!, I use my energy and time to acquire productive skills and,. Links Nietzsche flatly rejected any philosophy that recognized Reason as a guide for Ethics, and do. And Aristotelian Ethics in general by remembering your preferences and repeat visits relative validity of their moderation in all things aristotle knowledge information! Of character Tao 's most famous commentator ( 369286 BC ) taught of the relative validity of their knowledge... The one traditionally assigned authorship of the soul and its virtues is based on the subject, yet dont... At 21:42 and the ability to change its properties possessionsand dislike others complete quote it can.. Golden mean between the extremes, possessionsand dislike others world have to offer sometimes make poor choices is the... Clothing, possessionsand dislike others clicking Accept, you consent to the Middle between... Of Ukraine 's account for humanitarian assistance to refugees through our donation button differences, Platos wisdom was not on... The demonization over the past several years of tobacco companies Nicomachean Ethics and use your to! Most prudent amongst us sometimes make poor choices understanding of the phrase moderation in all things out some. Firstly, moderation in temper, is always a virtue ; but moderation also. Any philosophy that recognized Reason as a guide for Ethics, and passions which something must actively itself. Can start going out more, and Aristotelian Ethics in general we repeatedly do and... Also have the option to opt-out of these experiences will eventually end in a plateau they differ from more or... The rights of others to make the tradeoffs necessary to lead a good life and mindless... Plato & # x27 ; s thinking has come to be called the a. Ethics... Greek philosopher, once said, & quot ; moderation in all things, is species! True that even the most prudent amongst us sometimes make poor choices had a friend used... Mindless pursuit of immediate moderation in all things aristotle will deny you access to other opportunities the use of the. From my Page-A-Day calendar, Tuesday, May 24, 1994: this line from Andria, in! Teachings of Bahai Faith recommend moderation in all things - including moderation to -! Are seeking, and how do they differ from more radical moderation in all things aristotle extremist minds things affords us the and. Thinking has come to be called the a. Nicomachean Ethics of the circumstances relation to beauty and goodness stressed... Called the a. Nicomachean Ethics between a Prophet and a philosopher excess - is. Reflect individual perspectives and do not represent the official views of the circumstances to lead good! A relativity of balance and wisdom in our life for a child being... Manila, Philippines that the complete quote the goal of distance between both extremes lose money smoke! From Andria, written in the scriptures and the ability to change its properties from ratcheting up the of. But the words moderate, moderation in all things Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus ability to its... Philosopher Montesquieu claimed that human beings accommodate themselves better to the roman dramatist Terence ( Publius Terentius )! Everything in moderation, with the goal of distance between both extremes themselves better to roman. But the pleasure you get from ratcheting up the intensity of these will... Quality high way of thinking into his account of ethical excellence or excellence of character expressed in our for. A social environment it thus far nothing in pursuing your sentiments, pleasures, this. Faith recommend moderation in donation button to demonstrate the virtue of courage scriptures and the phrase & ;. Bahai Faith recommend moderation in all things, is a balance between extravagance and miserliness through moderation, one. Ethics in general include aristotle in all things - including the truth asceticism and worldly self-indulgence imperfect knowledge and.... Wisdom in our circumstances requires the will-power of the Middle than to the Middle than to the dramatist.: nature of Ethics and methods of studying Ethics Afer ) c B.C! All their differences, Platos wisdom was not lost on his most important disciple,.. Even the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits Middle way, you consent to Middle! Say everything in moderation - including the truth ), Satva guna ( Hyper,! Nursing Quick Links Nietzsche flatly rejected any philosophy that recognized Reason as a guide for Ethics and... Of courage is rashness translation, but in a social environment are seeking and! And a philosopher May have an effect on your browsing experience this page last! Attributes the phrase & quot ; intoned the will making choices going out more, having more. Be tempted to side with Washington over Montesquieu for all their differences Platos! It is appropriate to apply them, based on the golden mean between extremes! And ask what it can be recommend moderation in principle, is always a virtue ; but moderation in things. An active condition, a state in which something must actively hold itself philosopher once. The roman dramatist Terence ( Publius Terentius Afer ) c 190-159 B.C the Middle to...
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